Mastering the accurate utilization of nouns in English is a relatively straightforward task, guided by established conventions and limited exceptions. Take advantage of the provided resources to gain insights into the English grammar regulations pertaining to gender, plurals, countable and uncountable nouns, compound nouns, capitalization, nationalities, and the creation of possessive forms.
Nouns in English
- Gendered nouns
- Singular and plural nouns including irregular plural nouns
- Countable and uncountable nouns
- Definite pronouns
- Indefinite pronouns
- Compound nouns
- Capitalization rules for nouns
- Nationalities in English
- Forming the possessive
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1. Noun gender
Nouns answer the questions “What is it?” and “Who is it?” They give names to things, people, and places.
Examples
- dog
- bicycle
- Mary
- girl
- beauty
- France
- world
In general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine in English nouns. However, gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words when referring to people or animals.
Examples
| Masculine | Feminine | Gender neutral |
|---|---|---|
| man | woman | person |
| father | mother | parent |
| boy | girl | child |
| uncle | aunt | |
| husband | wife | spouse |
| actor | actress | |
| prince | princess | |
| waiter | waitress | server |
| rooster | hen | chicken |
| stallion | mare | horse |
Many nouns that refer to people’s roles and jobs can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject, like for example cousin, teenager, teacher, doctor, student, friend, colleague
Examples
- Mary is my friend. She is a doctor.
- Peter is my cousin. He is a doctor.
- Arthur is my friend. He is a student.
- Jane is my cousin. She is a student.
It is possible to make the distinction for these neutral words by adding the words male or female.
Examples
- Sam is a female doctor.
- No, he is not my boyfriend, he is just a male friend.
- I have three female cousins and two male cousins.
Infrequently, nouns describing things without a gender are referred to with a gendered pronoun to show familiarity. It is also correct to use the gender-neutral pronoun (it).
Examples
- I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion.
- France is popular with her (France’s) neighbours at the moment.
- I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth; she (the Queen Elizabeth) is a great ship.
2. Singular and plural nouns
Regular nouns
Most singular nouns form the plural by adding -s.
Examples
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| boat | boats |
| house | houses |
| cat | cats |
| river | rivers |
A singular noun ending in s, x, z, ch, sh makes the plural by adding-es.
Examples
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| bus | buses |
| wish | wishes |
| pitch | pitches |
| box | boxes |
A singular noun ending in a consonant and then y makes the plural by dropping the y and adding-ies.
Examples
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| penny | pennies |
| spy | spies |
| baby | babies |
| city | cities |
| daisy | daisies |
Irregular nouns
There are some irregular noun plurals. The most common ones are listed below.
Examples
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| woman | women |
| man | men |
| child | children |
| tooth | teeth |
| foot | feet |
| person | people |
| leaf | leaves |
| mouse | mice |
| goose | geese |
| half | halves |
| knife | knives |
| wife | wives |
| life | lives |
| elf | elves |
| loaf | loaves |
| potato | potatoes |
| tomato | tomatoes |
| cactus | cacti |
| focus | foci |
| fungus | fungi |
| nucleus | nuclei |
| syllabus | syllabi/syllabuses |
| analysis | analyses |
| diagnosis | diagnoses |
| oasis | oases |
| thesis | theses |
| crisis | crises |
| phenomenon | phenomena |
| criterion | criteria |
| datum | data |
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.
Examples
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| sheep | sheep |
| fish | fish |
| deer | deer |
| species | species |
| aircraft | aircraft |
Irregular verb/noun agreement
Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.
| Plural nouns used with a singular verb | Sentence |
|---|---|
| news | The news is at 6.30 p.m. |
| athletics | Athletics is good for young people. |
| linguistics | Linguistics is the study of language. |
| darts | Darts is a popular game in England. |
| billiards | Billiards is played all over the world. |
Some nouns have a fixed plural form and take a plural verb. They are not used in the singular, or they have a different meaning in the singular. Nouns like this include: trousers, jeans, glasses, savings, thanks, steps, stairs, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits
| Plural noun with plural verb | Sentence |
|---|---|
| trousers | My trousers are too tight. |
| jeans | Her jeans are black. |
| glasses | Those glasses are his. |
3. Countable and uncountable nouns
It’s important to distinguish between countable and uncountable nouns in English because their usage is different in regards to both determiners and verbs.
Countable nouns
Countable nouns refer to items that can be quantified using numerical values. They possess both a singular and a plural form. The singular form can be preceded by the determiners “a” or “an.” When inquiring about the quantity of a countable noun, you use the question structure “How many?” along with the plural version of the countable noun.
| Singular | Plural |
|---|---|
| one dog | two dogs |
| one horse | two horses |
| one man | two men |
| one idea | two ideas |
| one shop | two shops |
Examples
- She has three dogs.
- I own a house.
- I would like two books please.
- How many friends do you have?
Uncountable nouns
Uncountable nouns pertain to entities that cannot be quantified using numerical values. They encompass abstract concepts, qualities, or physical substances that are either too minuscule or lack a definite form to be counted (such as liquids, powders, gases, etc.). Uncountable nouns are paired with singular verbs and typically lack a plural form.
Examples
- tea
- sugar
- water
- air
- rice
- knowledge
- beauty
- anger
- fear
- love
- money
- research
- safety
- evidence
The usage of a/an is inappropriate with these nouns. To convey a specific amount of an uncountable noun, employ terms like some, a lot of, much, a bit of, a great deal of, or utilize precise measurements such as a cup of, a bag of, 1kg of, 1L of, a handful of, a pinch of, an hour of, a day of. When inquiring about the quantity of an uncountable noun, you employ the question “How much?”
Examples
- There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.
- He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.
- Can you give me some information about uncountable nouns?
- He did not have much sugar left.
- Measure 1 cup of water, 300g of flour, and 1 teaspoon of salt.
- How much rice do you want?
Tricky spots
Certain nouns may be countable in other languages, yet in English, they are considered uncountable. Consequently, these nouns are subject to the regulations that govern uncountable nouns. The frequently encountered examples encompass:
accommodation, advice, baggage, behavior, bread, furniture, information, luggage, news, progress, traffic, travel, trouble, weather, and work.
Examples
- I would like to give you some advice.
- How much bread should I bring?
- I didn’t make much progress today.
- This looks like a lot of trouble to me.
- We did an hour of work yesterday.
Be careful with the noun hair which is normally uncountable in English, so it is not used in the plural. It can be countable only when referring to individual hairs.
Examples
- She has long blond hair.
- The child’s hair was curly.
- I washed my hair yesterday.
- My father is getting a few grey hairs now. (refers to individual hairs)
- I found a hair in my soup! (refers to a single strand of hair)
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4. Pronouns
Pronouns serve as substitutes for nouns. The choice of a specific pronoun hinges on two factors: the particular noun undergoing replacement and the role that noun assumes within the sentence. In English, pronouns mirror the gender of the noun they replace exclusively in the 3rd person singular form. The 2nd person plural pronouns are indistinguishable from the 2nd person singular pronouns, with the exception of the reflexive pronoun.
| Subject pronoun | Object pronoun | Possessive adjective (determiner) | Possessive pronoun | Reflexive or intensive pronoun | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | I | me | my | mine | myself |
| 2nd person singular | you | you | your | yours | yourself |
| 3rd person singular, male | he | him | his | his | himself |
| 3rd person singular, female | she | her | her | hers | herself |
| 3rd person singular, neutral | it | it | its | itself | |
| 1st person plural | we | us | our | ours | ourselves |
| 2nd person plural | you | you | your | yours | yourselves |
| 3rd person plural | they | them | their | theirs | themselves |
Subject pronouns
Subject pronouns replace nouns that are the subject of their clause. In the 3rd person, subject pronouns are often used to avoid repetition of the subject’s name.
Examples
- I am 16.
- You seem lost.
- Jim is angry, and he wants Sally to apologize.
- This table is old. It needs to be repainted.
- We aren’t coming.
- They don’t like pancakes.
Object pronouns
Object pronouns are used to replace nouns that are the direct or indirect object of a clause.
Examples
- Give the book to me.
- The teacher wants to talk to you.
- Jake is hurt because Bill hit him.
- Rachid recieved a letter from her last week.
- Mark can’t find it.
- Don’t be angry with us.
- Tell them to hurry up!
Possessive adjectives (determiners)
Possessive adjectives diverge from pronouns and fall under the category of determiners. While not pronouns themselves, they share a resemblance in form with possessive pronouns. Although possessive adjectives operate as adjectives, it’s beneficial to grasp them alongside pronouns due to their likeness. Positioned before the noun they modify, possessive adjectives serve an adjective-like role and don’t fulfill the noun-replacement role characteristic of pronouns.
Examples
- Did mother find my shoes?
- Mrs. Baker wants to see your homework.
- Can Jake bring over his baseball cards?
- Samantha will fix her bike tomorrow.
- The cat broke its leg.
- This is our house.
- Where is their school?
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns replace possessive nouns as either the subject or the object of a clause. Because the noun being replaced doesn’t appear in the sentence, it must be clear from the context.
Examples
- This bag is mine.
- Yours is not blue.
- That bag looks like his.
- These shoes are not hers.
- That car is ours.
- Theirs is parked in the garage.
Reflexive & intensive pronouns
Reflexive and intensive pronouns share a common set of words, yet they serve distinct roles within a sentence.
Reflexive pronouns are employed to refer back to the subject of a clause, where the subject of the action also acts as the direct or indirect object. Specific types of verbs can trigger the use of reflexive pronouns. It’s important to note that removing a reflexive pronoun from a sentence would render the sentence grammatically incorrect.
Examples
- I told myself to calm down.
- You cut yourself on this nail?
- He hurt himself on the stairs.
- She found herself in a dangerous part of town.
- The cat threw itself under my car!
- We blame ourselves for the fire.
- The children can take care of themselves.
Intensive pronouns highlight the subject of a clause, providing emphasis. They do not serve as the object of the action. The presence of an intensive pronoun in a sentence can be removed without causing significant changes in meaning; however, it will diminish the emphasis on the subject. Intensive pronouns can be positioned directly after the subject of the clause or placed at the end of the clause.
Examples
- I made these cookies myself.
- You yourself asked Jake to come.
- The Pope himself pardoned Mr. Brown.
- My teacher didn’t know the answer herself.
- The test itself wasn’t scary, but my teacher certainly is.
- We would like to finish the renovation before Christmas ourselves.
- They themselves told me the lost shoe wasn’t a problem.
5. Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. In English, there is a particular group of indefinite pronouns formed with a quantifier or distributive preceeded by any, some, every and no.
| Person | Place | Thing | |
|---|---|---|---|
| All | everyone everybody |
everywhere | everything |
| Part (positive) | someone somebody |
somewhere | something |
| Part (negative) | anyone anybody |
anywhere | anything |
| None | no one nobody |
nowhere | nothing |
Indefinite pronouns with some and any are used to describe indefinite and incomplete quantities in the same way that some and any are used alone.
Indefinite pronouns are placed in the same location as a noun would go in the sentence.
| Noun | Indefinite pronoun |
|---|---|
| I would like to go to Paris this summer. | I would like to go somewhere this summer. |
| Jim gave me this book. | Someone gave me this book. |
| I won’t tell your secret to Sam. | I won’t tell your secret to anyone. |
| I bought my school supplies at the mall. | I bought everything at the mall. |
Affirmative
In positive statements, indefinite pronouns that incorporate “some” are employed to indicate an unspecified amount, while those involving “every” denote a comprehensive quantity. On the other hand, pronouns accompanied by “no” portray an absence. Although indefinite pronouns with “no” are frequently used in affirmative sentences to convey a negative sense, they do not qualify as negative sentences since they do not contain the word “not.”
Examples
- Everyone is sleeping in my bed.
- Someone is sleeping in my bed.
- No one is sleeping in my bed.
- I gave everything to Sally.
- He saw something in the garden.
- There is nothing to eat.
- I looked everywhere for my keys.
- Keith is looking for somewhere to live.
- There is nowhere as beautiful as Paris.
Any and the indefinite pronouns formed with it can also be used in affirmative sentences with a meaning that is close to every: whichever person, whichever place, whichever thing, etc.
Examples
- They can choose anything from the menu.
- You may invite anybody you want to your birthday party.
- We can go anywhere you’d like this summer.
- He would give anything to get into Oxford.
- Fido would follow you anywhere.
Negative sentences
Negative sentences can only be formed with the indefinite pronouns that include any.
Examples
- I don’t have anything to eat.
- She didn’t go anywhere last week.
- I can’t find anyone to come with me.
Numerous negative statements featuring an indefinite pronoun like “any” can be transformed into affirmative sentences with a negative implication by employing an indefinite pronoun with “no.” Nevertheless, this alteration results in a shift in meaning: the sentence incorporating an indefinite pronoun with “no” becomes more emphatic and can suggest emotional nuances like defensiveness, hopelessness, anger, and more.
Examples
- I don’t know anything about it. = neutral
- I know nothing about it. = defensive
- I don’t have anybody to talk to. = neutral
- I have nobody to talk to. = hopeless
- There wasn’t anything we could do. = neutral
- There was nothing we could do. = defensive/angry
Negative questions
Negative questions can be constructed using indefinite pronouns like “every,” “some,” and “any.” Typically, these questions can elicit either a “yes” or a “no” response.
Pronouns created with “any” and “every” are utilized for forming genuine questions, while those involving “some” generally suggest inquiries where the answer is already known or suspected.
Examples
- Is there anything to eat?
- Did you go anywhere last night?
- Is everyone here?
- Have you looked everywhere?
These questions can be turned in to false or rhetorical questions by making them negative. The speaker, when posing a question of this type, is expecting an answer of “no”.
Examples
- Isn’t there anything to eat?
- Didn’t you go anywhere last night?
- Isn’t everyone here?
- Haven’t you looked everywhere?
Some and pronouns formed with it is only used in questions to which we think we already know the answer, or questions which are not true questions (invitations, requests, etc.) The person asking these questions is expecting an answer of “Yes”.
Examples
- Are you looking for someone?
- Have you lost something?
- Are you going somewhere?
- Could somebody help me, please? = request
- Would you like to go somewhere this weekend? = invitation
These questions can be made even more definite if they are made negative. In this case, the speaker is absolutely certain he will receive the answer “Yes”.
Examples
- Aren’t you looking for someone?
- Haven’t you lost something?
- Aren’t you going somewhere?
- Couldn’t somebody help me, please?
- Wouldn’t you like to go somewhere this weekend?
6. Compound nouns
Compound nouns are the result of combining words, a practice that is highly prevalent and constantly evolving. Typically consisting of two parts, compound nouns serve to convey the nature, purpose, or identity of an object or person. This linguistic construction frequently yields meanings that are distinct or more precise than the individual words themselves.
| First part: type or purpose | Second part: what or who | Compound noun |
|---|---|---|
| police | man | policeman |
| boy | friend | boyfriend |
| water | tank | water tank |
| dining | table | dining-table |
You have noticed that the compound noun can be written either as a single word, as a word with a hyphen, or as two words. There are no clear rules about this. A good rule of thumb is to write the most common compound nouns as one word, and the others as two words.
The elements in a compound noun are very diverse parts of speech.
| Compound elements | Examples |
|---|---|
| noun + noun | bedroom water tank motorcycle printer cartridge |
| noun + verb | rainfall haircut train-spotting |
| noun + adverb | hanger-on passer-by |
| verb + noun | washing machine driving licence swimming pool |
| verb + adverb | lookout take-off drawback |
| adverb + noun | onlooker bystander |
| adjective + verb | dry-cleaning public speaking |
| adjective + noun | greenhouse software redhead |
| adverb + verb | output overthrow upturn input |
Pronunciation
Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compound noun and an adjective with a noun. In compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable.
Examples
- a ‘greenhouse = place where we grow plants (compound noun)
- a green ‘house = house painted green (adjective and noun)
- a ‘bluebird = type of bird (compound noun)
- a blue ‘bird = any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun)
7. Capitalization rules
Capital letters are used with particular types of nouns, in certain positions in sentences, and with some adjectives. You must always use capital letters for:
The beginning of a sentence
Examples
- Dogs are noisy.
- Children are noisy too.
The first person personal pronoun, I
Examples
- Yesterday, I went to the park.
- He isn’t like I am.
Names and titles of people
Examples
- Winston Churchill
- Marilyn Monroe
- the Queen of England
- the President of the United States
- the Headmaster of Eton
- Doctor Mathews
- Professor Samuels
Titles of works, books, movies
Examples
- War and Peace
- The Merchant of Venice
- Crime and Punishment
- Spider Man II
Months of the year
Examples
- January
- July
- February
- August
Days of the week
Examples
- Monday
- Friday
- Tuesday
- Saturday
Holidays
Examples
- Christmas
- Easter
- New Year’s Day
- Thanksgiving Day
Names of countries and continents
Examples
- America
- England
- Scotland
- China
Names of regions, states, districts
Examples
- Sussex
- California
- Provence
- Tuscany
Names of cities, towns, villages
Examples
- London
- Cape Town
- Florence
- Vancouver
Names of rivers, oceans, seas, lakes
Examples
- the Atlantic
- the Pacific
- Lake Victoria
- the Rhine
- the Thames
Names of geographical formations
Examples
- the Himalayas
- the Alps
- the Sahara
Adjectives relating to nationality
Examples
- French music
- Australian animals
- German literature
- Arabic writing
Collective nouns for nationalities
Examples
- the French
- the Germans
- the Americans
- the Chinese
Language names
Examples
- I speak Chinese.
- He understands English.
Names of streets, buildings, parks
Examples
- Park Lane
- Sydney Opera House
- Central Park
- the Empire State Building
- Wall Street
8. Nationalities
Creating nationality adjectives and nouns based on country names can be a nuanced process in English. Utilize the nationality adjective formed by adding the endings -ese or -ish, accompanied by a plural verb, to encompass the entire populace of that nationality. Additionally, the provided adjective frequently pertains to the language spoken in the country, though exceptions do exist.
Examples
- Country: I live in Japan.
- Adjective: He likes Japanese food.
- Origins: She is a Japanese person. = She is from Japan. = She is Japanese.
- Language: She speaks Japanese.
- Describing a group: Spaniards often drink wine. = Spanish people often drink wine.
- Describing a group: The Chinese enjoy fireworks. = Chinese people enjoy fireworks.
In certain situations, a nationality or regional term might carry a negative connotation for certain individuals due to historical or political factors. In such instances, many individuals may opt not to use it and, instead, prefer a more neutral approach using an adjective followed by “people” or “people from” along with the country name. This practice is observed in the examples marked with an asterisk below. Alternative expressions, which are less likely to cause offense, are provided within parentheses.
| Geographic region/Continent | Adjective | Noun |
|---|---|---|
| Africa | African | an African* (an African person, someone from Africa) |
| Asia | Asian | an Asian* (an Asian person, someone from Asia) |
| Europe | European | a European |
| Central America | Central American | a Central American |
| Middle East | Middle Eastern | a Middle Easterner |
| North Africa | North African | a North African |
| South America | South American | a South American |
| Southeast Asia | Southeast Asian | a Southeast Asian person |
| Country or region | Adjective | Noun |
|---|---|---|
| Afghanistan | Afghan | an Afghan |
| Algeria | Algerian | an Algerian |
| Angola | Angolan | an Angolan |
| Argentina | Argentine | an Argentine |
| Austria | Austrian | an Austrian |
| Australia | Australian | an Australian |
| Bangladesh | Bangladeshi | a Bangladeshi |
| Belarus | Belarusian | a Belarusian |
| Belgium | Belgian | a Belgian |
| Bolivia | Bolivian | a Bolivian |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnian/Herzegovinian | a Bosnian/a Herzegovinian |
| Brazil | Brazilian | a Brazilian |
| Britain | British | a Briton (informally: a Brit) |
| Bulgaria | Bulgarian | a Bulgarian |
| Cambodia | Cambodian | a Cambodian |
| Cameroon | Cameroonian | a Cameroonian |
| Canada | Canadian | a Canadian |
| Central African Republic | Central African | a Central African |
| Chad | Chadian | a Chadian |
| China | Chinese | a Chinese person |
| Colombia | Colombian | a Colombian |
| Costa Rica | Costa Rican | a Costa Rican |
| Croatia | Croatian | a Croat |
| the Czech Republic | Czech | a Czech person |
| Democratic Republic of the Congo | Congolese | a Congolese person (note: this refers to people from the Republic of the Congo as well) |
| Denmark | Danish | a Dane |
| Ecuador | Ecuadorian | an Ecuadorian |
| Egypt | Egyptian | an Egyptian |
| El Salvador | Salvadoran | a Salvadoran (also accepted are Salvadorian & Salvadorean) |
| England | English | an Englishman/Englishwoman |
| Estonia | Estonian | an Estonian |
| Ethiopia | Ethiopian | an Ethiopian |
| Finland | Finnish | a Finn |
| France | French | a Frenchman/Frenchwoman |
| Germany | German | a German |
| Ghana | Ghanaian | a Ghanaian |
| Greece | Greek | a Greek |
| Guatemala | Guatemalan | a Guatemalan |
| Holland | Dutch | a Dutchman/Dutchwoman |
| Honduras | Honduran | a Honduran |
| Hungary | Hungarian | a Hungarian |
| Iceland | Icelandic | an Icelander |
| India | Indian | an Indian |
| Indonesia | Indonesian | an Indonesian |
| Iran | Iranian | an Iranian |
| Iraq | Iraqi | an Iraqi |
| Ireland | Irish | an Irishman/Irishwoman |
| Israel | Israeli | an Israeli |
| Italy | Italian | an Italian |
| Ivory Coast | Ivorian | an Ivorian |
| Jamaica | Jamaican | a Jamaican |
| Japan | Japanese | a Japanese person |
| Jordan | Jordanian | a Jordanian |
| Kazakhstan | Kazakh | a Kazakhstani (used as a noun, “a Kazakh” refers to an ethnic group, not a nationality) |
| Kenya | Kenyan | a Kenyan |
| Laos | Lao | a Laotian (used as a noun, “a Lao” refers to an ethnic group, not a nationality) |
| Latvia | Latvian | a Latvian |
| Libya | Libyan | a Libyan |
| Lithuania | Lithuanian | a Lithuanian |
| Madagascar | Malagasy | a Malagasy |
| Malaysia | Malaysian | a Malaysian |
| Mali | Malian | a Malian |
| Mauritania | Mauritanian | a Mauritanian |
| Mexico | Mexican | a Mexican* (may be offensive in the USA. Use “someone from Mexico” instead.) |
| Morocco | Moroccan | a Moroccan |
| Namibia | Namibian | a Namibian |
| New Zealand | New Zealand | a New Zealander |
| Nicaragua | Nicaraguan | a Nicaraguan |
| Niger | Nigerien | a Nigerien |
| Nigeria | Nigerian | a Nigerian |
| Norway | Norwegian | a Norwegian |
| Oman | Omani | an Omani |
| Pakistan | Pakistani | a Pakistani* (may be offensive in the UK. Use “someone from Pakistan” instead.) |
| Panama | Panamanian | a Panamanian |
| Paraguay | Paraguayan | a Paraguayan |
| Peru | Peruvian | a Peruvian |
| The Philippines | Philippine | a Filipino* (someone from the Philippines) |
| Poland | Polish | a Pole* (someone from Poland, a Polish person) |
| Portugal | Portuguese | a Portuguese person |
| Republic of the Congo | Congolese | a Congolese person (note: this refers to people from the Democratic Republic of the Congo as well) |
| Romania | Romanian | a Romanian |
| Russia | Russian | a Russian |
| Saudi Arabia | Saudi, Saudi Arabian | a Saudi, a Saudi Arabian |
| Scotland | Scottish | a Scot |
| Senegal | Senegalese | a Senegalese person |
| Serbia | Serbian | a Serbian (used as a noun, “a Serb” refers to an ethnic group, not a nationality |
| Singapore | Singaporean | a Singaporean |
| Slovakia | Slovak | a Slovak |
| Somalia | Somalian | a Somalian |
| South Africa | South African | a South African |
| Spain | Spanish | a Spaniard* (a Spanish person, someone from Spain) |
| Sudan | Sudanese | a Sudanese person |
| Sweden | Swedish | a Swede |
| Switzerland | Swiss | a Swiss person |
| Syria | Syrian | a Syrian |
| Thailand | Thai | a Thai person |
| Tunisia | Tunisian | a Tunisian |
| Turkey | Turkish | a Turk |
| Turkmenistan | Turkmen | a Turkmen / the Turkmens |
| Ukraine | Ukranian | a Ukranian |
| The United Arab Emirates | Emirati | an Emirati |
| The United States | American | an American |
| Uruguay | Uruguayan | a Uruguayan |
| Vietnam | Vietnamese | a Vietnamese person |
| Wales | Welsh | a Welshman/Welshwoman |
| Zambia | Zambian | a Zambian |
| Zimbabwe | Zimbabwean | a Zimbabwean |
Cities also can be transformed into adjectives and nouns, although they are highly irregular and the nominal form is not always agreed upon (there may be several). Some examples of transformed city names are below.
| City | Adjective | Noun |
|---|---|---|
| Paris | Parisian | a Parisian |
| New York | New York | a New Yorker |
| Sydney | Sydney | a Sydney-sider |
| London | London | a Londoner |
| São Paulo | São Paulo | a Paulistano |
| New Delhi | New Delhi | a Delhiite |
| Cape Town | Cape Town | a Capetonian |
9. Forming the possessive
The possessive form is applied to nouns denoting individuals, collectives, nations, and creatures. It signifies a sense of ownership or affiliation between two entities. To create the possessive form, attach an apostrophe followed by “s” to the noun. If the noun is in plural form or already concludes with an “s,” solely include an apostrophe subsequent to the “s.”
Examples
- the car of John = John’s car
- the room of the girls = the girls’ room
- clothes for men = men’s clothes
- the boat of the sailors = the sailors’ boat
For names ending in s, you can either add an apostrophe + s, or just an apostrophe. The first option is more common. When pronouncing a possessive name, we add the sound /z/ to the end of the name.
Examples
- Thomas’s book (or Thomas’ book)
- James’s shop (or James’ shop)
- the Smiths’s house (or the Smiths’ house)
Functions of the possessive
‘Belonging to’ or ‘ownership’ is the most common relationship the possessive expresses.
Examples
- John owns a car. = It is John’s car.
- America has some gold reserves. = They are America’s gold reserves.
The possessive can also express where someone works, studies or spends time
Examples
- John goes to this school. = This is John’s school.
- John sleeps in this room. = This is John’s room.
The possessive can express a relationship between people.
Examples
- John’s mother is running late.
- Mrs Brown’s colleague will not be coming to the meeting.
The possessive can express intangible things as well.
Examples
- John’s patience is running out.
- The politician’s hypocrisy was deeply shocking.
Fixed expressions
There are also some fixed expressions where the possessive form is used.
Examples with time
- a day’s work
- a month’s pay
- today’s newspaper
- in a year’s time
Other examples
- For God’s sake! (= exclamation of exasperation)
- a stone’s throw away (= very near)
- at death’s door (= very ill)
- in my mind’s eye (= in my imagination)
The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches and colleges, using the name or job title of the owner.
Examples
- Shall we go to Luigi’s for lunch?
- I’ve got an appointment at the dentist’s at eleven o’clock.
- Is Saint Mary’s an all-girls school?
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I am Nilay, an experienced English Language Assessment Director at the International English Test, where I have been working full-time since February 2020. I specialize in helping people worldwide validate their English proficiency through comprehensive assessments and certifications.
Before joining the International English Test, I worked as a self-employed English Language Assessment Consultant from January 2015 to December 2019. During this time, I assisted companies and individuals in improving their language skills, helping them achieve their academic and professional goals.
I hold a degree in Engineering and have also studied at Shafston International College in Australia. My educational background has equipped me with the tools to make a meaningful impact in the field of English language learning. Additionally, I enjoy sharing my expertise through articles that explore effective teaching methods and language assessment strategies, contributing to the International English Test and the broader assessment community.
